International Environmental Law and Policy for the 21st Century
Biographical note
Ved P. Nanda, BA, MA (1952) Punjab University, India; LLB (1955), LLM (1958) Delhi University, India; LLM (1962) Northwestern University, is the Evans University Professor, Thompson G. Marsh Professor, and Director of the International Legal Studies Program at the University of Denver Sturm College of Law; biography and publications at www.law.du.edu/index.php/profile/ved-nanda.
George (Rock) Pring, BA hons. (1963) Harvard University; JD hons (1968) University of Michigan, is a Professor of Law at the University of Denver Sturm College of Law; biography and publications at www.law.du.edu/index.php/profile/george-pring.
George (Rock) Pring, BA hons. (1963) Harvard University; JD hons (1968) University of Michigan, is a Professor of Law at the University of Denver Sturm College of Law; biography and publications at www.law.du.edu/index.php/profile/george-pring.
Readership
All interested in International Environmental Law and Policy, including students, scholars, professionals, jurists, public officials, NGOs, and interested lay persons.
Table of contents
Acknowledgements
Part I: Introduction
Chapter One: International Environmental Law: The Nature and Scope of the Challenge
1.0: Introduction
1.1: The Sources or Bases of International Environmental Law
1.1.1: International Conventional Law
1.1.2: International Customary Law
1.1.3: General Principles of Law
1.1.4: Judicial Decisions
1.1.5: Scholarly Writings
1.1.6: New Sources of International Law
Chapter Two: The Fundamental Principles of International Environmental Law
2.0: Introduction
2.1 Fundamental Substantive Principles
2.1.1: State Sovereignty
2.1.2: “Good Neighborliness” – The Duty to Cooperate
2.1.3: The No-Harm Rule
2.1.4: Sustainable Development
2.1.5: Right to Development
2.1.6: Right to a Clean, Healthful Environment
2.1.7: Environmental Justice: Intergenerational and Intragenerational Equity
2.1.8: Equitable Utilization of Shared Resources
2.1.9: Conservation
2.1.10: The Common Heritage of Humankind - “The Global Commons”
2.1.11: The Common Concern of Humankind – Erga Omnes
2.1.12: Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
2.1.13: The Polluter-Pays Principle
2.1.14: State Responsibility and Liability
2.2 Fundamental Procedural Principles
2.2.1: Public Participation
2.2.2: Prior Notification, Consultation, and Negotiation Duties
2.2.3: The Prevention Principle
2.2.4: The Precautionary Principle
2.2.5: Duty to Do Environmental Impact Assessment
2.2.6: Duty to Adopt Effective National Law—The Duty to Enforce
2.2.7: The Integration Principle
Part II: Lawmaking
Chapter Three: The Early Years
3.0: Introduction
3.1: International Agreements
3.1.1: Early 20th Century Agreements
3.1.2: The 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty
3.1.3: Other Agreements
3.2: Case Law
3.2.1: Bering Sea Fur Seals Arbitration
3.2.2: The Trail Smelter Arbitration
3.2.3: The Corfu Channel Case
3.2.4: The Lac Lanoux Arbitration
3.2.5: The Japanese Fishermen Case
3.2.6: The 1958 US Pacific Nuclear Tests
3.2.7: Nuclear Tests Cases (Australia v. France and New Zealand v. France)
3.2.8: Pollution of Ciudad Juarez
3.2.9: The 1969 Gut Dam Case
3.2.10: Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion
3.2.11: Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project
3.2.12: The MOX Plant Case (Ireland v. UK)
3.2.13: Iron Rhine Railway Arbitration (Belg. v. Neth.)
3.2.14: Case Concerning Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay)
3.3: Appraisal
Chapter Four: The Next 40 Years: The Evolution of International Environmental Policy from 1972 to the Present
4.0: Introduction
4.1: The Stockholm Conference and Declaration
4.1.1: Analysis
4.1.2: Appraisal
4.2: The Post-Stockholm Period: The Flowering of UNEP
4.2.1: Introduction
4.2.2: Environmental Assessment
4.2.3: Environmental Management
4.2.4: Environmental Law
4.2.5: Appraisal
4.3: The Rio Conference on Environment and Development
4.3.1: Introduction
4.3.2: The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
4.3.3: Agenda 21
4.3.4: The Commission on Sustainable Development
4.3.5: Appraisal
4.4.: The Uneven Road from Rio to Rio (1992-2012)
4.4.1: The CSD and “Rio+5”
4.4.2: UNEP Reforms for the New Century
4.4.3: The 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development
4.4.4: “Rio+20” – the Return to Rio
4.5: International Environmental Law, Multilateral Environmental Agreements, and International Environmental Governance
4.5.1: UNEP and International Environmental Law
4.5.2: UNEP and Multilateral Environmental Agreements
4.5.3: UNEP and International Environmental Governance
Chapter Five: International Environmental Institutions and Organizations
5.0: Introduction
5.1: The United Nations “Family”
5.2: International Financial Organizations
5.3: Other International IGOs
5.4: Regional International IGOs
5.5: Nonstate Entities: NGOs and Business Interests
5.5.1: International NGOs
5.5.2: Multinational Corporations and Other Business Interests
5.5.3: Corporate Social Responsibility
Part III: The Key Issues
Chapter Six: Environmental Impact Assessment
6.0: Introduction
6.1: EIA Procedures: The Common Requirements
6.2: The Development of EIA Requirements in International Law
6.3: IFIs’ EIA Requirements
6.4: The Future of EIA
Chapter Seven: Energy and the Environment: An International Perspective
7.0: Introduction
7.1: Energy, Economic Development, and the Environment
7.1.1: Energy Availability and Usage and Economic Development
7.1.2: Tension Between Energy Generation and Consumption and the Environment
7.1.3: Energy and Related Trends
7.2: The Evolution of Energy and Environmental Law in an International Context
7.3: International Law Related to Energy and the Environment
7.3.1: Introduction
7.3.2: Nuclear Energy
7.3.3: Marine Oil Pollution from Ships
7.3.4: Energy Charter Treaty
7.4: Looking Ahead
7.4.1: Introduction
7.4.2: A New Paradigm for Regulating Energy? Global Energy Governance
7.5: Conclusion
Chapter Eight: Preservation
8.0: Introduction
8.1: Preservation Laws Prior to the 1970s
8.1.1: The Early Wildlife Laws
8.1.2: The Western Hemisphere Conservation Convention
8.2: Preservation Efforts: The Stockholm Era: 1972-1992
8.2.1: Ecosystems
8.2.2: Natural and Cultural Resources
8.2.3: Endangered Species
8.2.4: The Global Commons
8.3: Preservation Efforts: Rio and the 21st Century
8.3.1: The Convention on Biological Diversity
8.3.2: Forests
8.3.3: Desertification
8.4: Conclusion
Chapter Nine: International Freshwater Resources
9.0: Introduction
9.1: Development of Customary International Law
9.1.1: The Major Cases
9.1.2: The Key “Soft Law” Developments
9.2: The 1997 UN Convention on International Watercourses
9.2.1: Adoption of the “Ecosystem” Concept
9.2.2: Conflict Between the Principles of “Equitable Utilization” and “No Significant Harm”
9.2.3: Pollution Control
9.2.4: Other Important Provisions of the International Watercourses Convention
9.3: Bilateral, Multilateral, and Regional Regimes of International Freshwater Regulation
9.4: Groundwater
9.5: Conclusion
Chapter Ten: International Air Pollution
10.0: Introduction
10.1: Transboundary Air Pollution
10.1.1: Introduction
10.1.2: Customary International Law Governing Transboundary Air Pollution
10.1.3: Regional Treaty and Planning Regimes
10.2: Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
10.2.1: Introduction
10.2.2: The Problem
10.2.3: Evidence of Loss
10.2.4: Long-Term Consequences
10.2.5: Policy Implications
10.2.6: Prior to the 1985 Vienna Convention
10.2.7: The 1985 Vienna Ozone Convention
10.2.8: The 1987 Montreal Protocol and Subsequent Amendments
10.2.9: Developments in the United States and the European Union
10.2.10: Appraisal and Recommendations
10.3: Global Climate Change
10.3.1: Introduction
10.3.2: The “Greenhouse” Effect
10.3.3: Preventive Strategies and Problems
10.3.4: The Framework Convention on Climate Change
10.3.5: The Kyoto Protocol
10.3.6: Negotiating the Implementation of Kyoto 1998-2005
10.3.7: An Assessment of the Kyoto Protocol
10.3.8: Developing a Post-Kyoto Framework
Chapter Eleven: The Marine Environment
11.0: Introduction
11.1: Framework of the Convention
11.2: Contribution of the Convention to International Environmental Law
11.2.1: Environmental Assessment Provisions
11.2.2: Law-Making and Law Enforcement Provisions
11.2.3: Special Status of Developing States
11.2.4: Protection of Living Resources
11.2.5: Dispute Settlement Provisions
11.2.6: The Relationship of the Convention and Customary Law
11.2.7: Appraisal
11.3: International and Regional Conventions
11.3.1: Regional Conventions
11.3.2: International Conventions and Actions
11.4: International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
11.5: Conclusion
Chapter Twelve: Hazardous Waste, Chemicals, and Technology
12.0: Introduction
12.1: The International Environmental Laws Governing Hazardous Waste
12.1.1: Developments Leading up to the Basel Convention
12.1.2: The Basel Convention
12.1.3: Post-Basel Developments: The “Banners” vs. the “Boosters” of Hazardous Waste Trade
12.2: International Controls on Chemicals
12.2.1: Introduction
12.2.2: The Beginnings: Voluntary International Chemical Control Effects
12.2.3: The Recent Development of Binding Chemical Treaties
12.3: International Controls on Hazardous Technologies, Industries, and Activities
12.4: Conclusion
Chapter Thirteen: Biotechnology in Food and the Biosafety Protocol
13.0: Introduction
13.1: Background
13.1.1: The Process
13.1.2: The Controversy
13.2: Regulation of Genetically-Modified Foods--The Key Concepts
13.2.1: The Precautionary Principle
13.2.2: Substantial Evidence
13.2.3: Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS)
13.2.4: The Consumer’s Right to Know
13.3: The International Standards for Genetically Modified Foods--The Codex Alimentarius Commission
13.4: Efforts to Regulate GMOS
13.4.1: The European Union
13.4.2: The United States
13.5: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity
13.5.1: Events Leading up to the Biosafety Protocol
13.5.2: Content and Analysis
13.5.3: Appraisal
Chapter Fourteen: International Trade and the Environment
14.0: Introduction
14.1: The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development--Agenda 21
14.2: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the World Trade Organization
14.2.1: Environmental Trade Measures
14.2.2: GATT Panel Decisions Before the Establishment of the WTO
14.2.3: WTO Cases
14.2.4: WTO’s Trade and Environment Committee
14.2.5: Appraisal
14.3: North American Free Trade Agreement
14.3.1: Overview
14.3.2: Review of the Pertinent NAFTA Provisions
14.3.3: Criticisms of NAFTA
14.3.4: North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation
14.4: Conclusion
Chapter Fifteen: The Environment and Human Rights
15.0: Introduction
15.1: The Challenge of Environmental Degradation
15.2: Historical Progression
15.3: Developments in the United States
15.4: The Right to Environmental Protection
15.4.1: The Nexus Between Environmental Protection and Internationally Recognized Human Rights
15.4.2: International and National Tribunals and the Right to a Healthy Environment
15.5: Operationalizing the Right to Environment
15.6: Appraisal and Recommendations
15.7: Rights of Indigenous Peoples
15.7.1: Introduction: A Case Study
15.7.2: What is “Indigenous”?
15.7.3: Early International Legal Protection
15.7.4: The Universal Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
15.8: Population, Human Rights, and the Environment
15.8.1: Introduction
15.8.2: The Nature and Scope of the Problem
15.8.3: The Population – Human Rights Nexus
15.8.4: The ICPD Program of Action and Subsequent Developments
15.8.5: Conclusion
Part IV: Conclusion
Chapter Sixteen: The Unfinished Agenda
16.0: The Challenge
16.1: Addressing the Challenge
16.2: A Final Word
Part I: Introduction
Chapter One: International Environmental Law: The Nature and Scope of the Challenge
1.0: Introduction
1.1: The Sources or Bases of International Environmental Law
1.1.1: International Conventional Law
1.1.2: International Customary Law
1.1.3: General Principles of Law
1.1.4: Judicial Decisions
1.1.5: Scholarly Writings
1.1.6: New Sources of International Law
Chapter Two: The Fundamental Principles of International Environmental Law
2.0: Introduction
2.1 Fundamental Substantive Principles
2.1.1: State Sovereignty
2.1.2: “Good Neighborliness” – The Duty to Cooperate
2.1.3: The No-Harm Rule
2.1.4: Sustainable Development
2.1.5: Right to Development
2.1.6: Right to a Clean, Healthful Environment
2.1.7: Environmental Justice: Intergenerational and Intragenerational Equity
2.1.8: Equitable Utilization of Shared Resources
2.1.9: Conservation
2.1.10: The Common Heritage of Humankind - “The Global Commons”
2.1.11: The Common Concern of Humankind – Erga Omnes
2.1.12: Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
2.1.13: The Polluter-Pays Principle
2.1.14: State Responsibility and Liability
2.2 Fundamental Procedural Principles
2.2.1: Public Participation
2.2.2: Prior Notification, Consultation, and Negotiation Duties
2.2.3: The Prevention Principle
2.2.4: The Precautionary Principle
2.2.5: Duty to Do Environmental Impact Assessment
2.2.6: Duty to Adopt Effective National Law—The Duty to Enforce
2.2.7: The Integration Principle
Part II: Lawmaking
Chapter Three: The Early Years
3.0: Introduction
3.1: International Agreements
3.1.1: Early 20th Century Agreements
3.1.2: The 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty
3.1.3: Other Agreements
3.2: Case Law
3.2.1: Bering Sea Fur Seals Arbitration
3.2.2: The Trail Smelter Arbitration
3.2.3: The Corfu Channel Case
3.2.4: The Lac Lanoux Arbitration
3.2.5: The Japanese Fishermen Case
3.2.6: The 1958 US Pacific Nuclear Tests
3.2.7: Nuclear Tests Cases (Australia v. France and New Zealand v. France)
3.2.8: Pollution of Ciudad Juarez
3.2.9: The 1969 Gut Dam Case
3.2.10: Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion
3.2.11: Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project
3.2.12: The MOX Plant Case (Ireland v. UK)
3.2.13: Iron Rhine Railway Arbitration (Belg. v. Neth.)
3.2.14: Case Concerning Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay)
3.3: Appraisal
Chapter Four: The Next 40 Years: The Evolution of International Environmental Policy from 1972 to the Present
4.0: Introduction
4.1: The Stockholm Conference and Declaration
4.1.1: Analysis
4.1.2: Appraisal
4.2: The Post-Stockholm Period: The Flowering of UNEP
4.2.1: Introduction
4.2.2: Environmental Assessment
4.2.3: Environmental Management
4.2.4: Environmental Law
4.2.5: Appraisal
4.3: The Rio Conference on Environment and Development
4.3.1: Introduction
4.3.2: The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
4.3.3: Agenda 21
4.3.4: The Commission on Sustainable Development
4.3.5: Appraisal
4.4.: The Uneven Road from Rio to Rio (1992-2012)
4.4.1: The CSD and “Rio+5”
4.4.2: UNEP Reforms for the New Century
4.4.3: The 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development
4.4.4: “Rio+20” – the Return to Rio
4.5: International Environmental Law, Multilateral Environmental Agreements, and International Environmental Governance
4.5.1: UNEP and International Environmental Law
4.5.2: UNEP and Multilateral Environmental Agreements
4.5.3: UNEP and International Environmental Governance
Chapter Five: International Environmental Institutions and Organizations
5.0: Introduction
5.1: The United Nations “Family”
5.2: International Financial Organizations
5.3: Other International IGOs
5.4: Regional International IGOs
5.5: Nonstate Entities: NGOs and Business Interests
5.5.1: International NGOs
5.5.2: Multinational Corporations and Other Business Interests
5.5.3: Corporate Social Responsibility
Part III: The Key Issues
Chapter Six: Environmental Impact Assessment
6.0: Introduction
6.1: EIA Procedures: The Common Requirements
6.2: The Development of EIA Requirements in International Law
6.3: IFIs’ EIA Requirements
6.4: The Future of EIA
Chapter Seven: Energy and the Environment: An International Perspective
7.0: Introduction
7.1: Energy, Economic Development, and the Environment
7.1.1: Energy Availability and Usage and Economic Development
7.1.2: Tension Between Energy Generation and Consumption and the Environment
7.1.3: Energy and Related Trends
7.2: The Evolution of Energy and Environmental Law in an International Context
7.3: International Law Related to Energy and the Environment
7.3.1: Introduction
7.3.2: Nuclear Energy
7.3.3: Marine Oil Pollution from Ships
7.3.4: Energy Charter Treaty
7.4: Looking Ahead
7.4.1: Introduction
7.4.2: A New Paradigm for Regulating Energy? Global Energy Governance
7.5: Conclusion
Chapter Eight: Preservation
8.0: Introduction
8.1: Preservation Laws Prior to the 1970s
8.1.1: The Early Wildlife Laws
8.1.2: The Western Hemisphere Conservation Convention
8.2: Preservation Efforts: The Stockholm Era: 1972-1992
8.2.1: Ecosystems
8.2.2: Natural and Cultural Resources
8.2.3: Endangered Species
8.2.4: The Global Commons
8.3: Preservation Efforts: Rio and the 21st Century
8.3.1: The Convention on Biological Diversity
8.3.2: Forests
8.3.3: Desertification
8.4: Conclusion
Chapter Nine: International Freshwater Resources
9.0: Introduction
9.1: Development of Customary International Law
9.1.1: The Major Cases
9.1.2: The Key “Soft Law” Developments
9.2: The 1997 UN Convention on International Watercourses
9.2.1: Adoption of the “Ecosystem” Concept
9.2.2: Conflict Between the Principles of “Equitable Utilization” and “No Significant Harm”
9.2.3: Pollution Control
9.2.4: Other Important Provisions of the International Watercourses Convention
9.3: Bilateral, Multilateral, and Regional Regimes of International Freshwater Regulation
9.4: Groundwater
9.5: Conclusion
Chapter Ten: International Air Pollution
10.0: Introduction
10.1: Transboundary Air Pollution
10.1.1: Introduction
10.1.2: Customary International Law Governing Transboundary Air Pollution
10.1.3: Regional Treaty and Planning Regimes
10.2: Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
10.2.1: Introduction
10.2.2: The Problem
10.2.3: Evidence of Loss
10.2.4: Long-Term Consequences
10.2.5: Policy Implications
10.2.6: Prior to the 1985 Vienna Convention
10.2.7: The 1985 Vienna Ozone Convention
10.2.8: The 1987 Montreal Protocol and Subsequent Amendments
10.2.9: Developments in the United States and the European Union
10.2.10: Appraisal and Recommendations
10.3: Global Climate Change
10.3.1: Introduction
10.3.2: The “Greenhouse” Effect
10.3.3: Preventive Strategies and Problems
10.3.4: The Framework Convention on Climate Change
10.3.5: The Kyoto Protocol
10.3.6: Negotiating the Implementation of Kyoto 1998-2005
10.3.7: An Assessment of the Kyoto Protocol
10.3.8: Developing a Post-Kyoto Framework
Chapter Eleven: The Marine Environment
11.0: Introduction
11.1: Framework of the Convention
11.2: Contribution of the Convention to International Environmental Law
11.2.1: Environmental Assessment Provisions
11.2.2: Law-Making and Law Enforcement Provisions
11.2.3: Special Status of Developing States
11.2.4: Protection of Living Resources
11.2.5: Dispute Settlement Provisions
11.2.6: The Relationship of the Convention and Customary Law
11.2.7: Appraisal
11.3: International and Regional Conventions
11.3.1: Regional Conventions
11.3.2: International Conventions and Actions
11.4: International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
11.5: Conclusion
Chapter Twelve: Hazardous Waste, Chemicals, and Technology
12.0: Introduction
12.1: The International Environmental Laws Governing Hazardous Waste
12.1.1: Developments Leading up to the Basel Convention
12.1.2: The Basel Convention
12.1.3: Post-Basel Developments: The “Banners” vs. the “Boosters” of Hazardous Waste Trade
12.2: International Controls on Chemicals
12.2.1: Introduction
12.2.2: The Beginnings: Voluntary International Chemical Control Effects
12.2.3: The Recent Development of Binding Chemical Treaties
12.3: International Controls on Hazardous Technologies, Industries, and Activities
12.4: Conclusion
Chapter Thirteen: Biotechnology in Food and the Biosafety Protocol
13.0: Introduction
13.1: Background
13.1.1: The Process
13.1.2: The Controversy
13.2: Regulation of Genetically-Modified Foods--The Key Concepts
13.2.1: The Precautionary Principle
13.2.2: Substantial Evidence
13.2.3: Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS)
13.2.4: The Consumer’s Right to Know
13.3: The International Standards for Genetically Modified Foods--The Codex Alimentarius Commission
13.4: Efforts to Regulate GMOS
13.4.1: The European Union
13.4.2: The United States
13.5: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity
13.5.1: Events Leading up to the Biosafety Protocol
13.5.2: Content and Analysis
13.5.3: Appraisal
Chapter Fourteen: International Trade and the Environment
14.0: Introduction
14.1: The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development--Agenda 21
14.2: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the World Trade Organization
14.2.1: Environmental Trade Measures
14.2.2: GATT Panel Decisions Before the Establishment of the WTO
14.2.3: WTO Cases
14.2.4: WTO’s Trade and Environment Committee
14.2.5: Appraisal
14.3: North American Free Trade Agreement
14.3.1: Overview
14.3.2: Review of the Pertinent NAFTA Provisions
14.3.3: Criticisms of NAFTA
14.3.4: North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation
14.4: Conclusion
Chapter Fifteen: The Environment and Human Rights
15.0: Introduction
15.1: The Challenge of Environmental Degradation
15.2: Historical Progression
15.3: Developments in the United States
15.4: The Right to Environmental Protection
15.4.1: The Nexus Between Environmental Protection and Internationally Recognized Human Rights
15.4.2: International and National Tribunals and the Right to a Healthy Environment
15.5: Operationalizing the Right to Environment
15.6: Appraisal and Recommendations
15.7: Rights of Indigenous Peoples
15.7.1: Introduction: A Case Study
15.7.2: What is “Indigenous”?
15.7.3: Early International Legal Protection
15.7.4: The Universal Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
15.8: Population, Human Rights, and the Environment
15.8.1: Introduction
15.8.2: The Nature and Scope of the Problem
15.8.3: The Population – Human Rights Nexus
15.8.4: The ICPD Program of Action and Subsequent Developments
15.8.5: Conclusion
Part IV: Conclusion
Chapter Sixteen: The Unfinished Agenda
16.0: The Challenge
16.1: Addressing the Challenge
16.2: A Final Word
No additional information